TEACHING MEDIA

CHAPTER REPORT 1

Media, Technology, and Learning

Learning

Learning is the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment. The learning environment includes the physical facilities, the phsycological atmosphere, instructional methods, media, and technology. In this chapter we first consider learning, looking at several psychological perspectives and a philosophical perspective.

A.    Phychological Perspective of Learning

We will briefly survey each of the major prespectives on learning and discuss their implications.

-        Behaviorist Perspective

In the mid 1950s, the focus of learning research started to shift from admulus design (communication) to learner response to stimuli. Skinner was a proponent of behaviorism but with an importent difference. He demonstrated that the behavior of an organism could be shaped by reinforcing, or rewarding, the desired responses to the environment.

-        Cognitivist Perspective

Cognitivists are making a primary contribution to learning theory and instructional design by creating models of how learners receive, process, and manipulate information. The three concepts of mental development in Piaget’s work are scemata, assimilation, and accomodation (Piaget, 1977)

Schemata are the mental structures by which individuals organize their perceived.

Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a learner integrates new information and experiences into existing schemata.

Accomodation is the process of modifying existing chemata or creating new ones.

-        Constructivist Perspective

Constructivism is a movement that extends beyond the beliefs of the cognitivist. Constuctivists emphasize that learners create their own interpretatitons of the world of information. The contructivists believes that learning occurs mosr effectively when students are engaged in authentic tasks that relate to meaning contexts.

-        Social-Pshycological Perspective

Soacial pshycology is another well-established tradition in the study of instruction and learning.it look athe the effects of the social organization of the classroom on learning. In recent years, researchers such as Robert Slavin have taken the position that cooperative learning is both more effective and more socially benefacial than competitive and individualistic learning (Slavin, 1990).

   

      B.    Approaches to Instruction

Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate learning. By environment not only where instruction takes place but also the methods, media, and technology needed to convery information and guide the learner’s study. Instructors and instructu=ional designers need to develop an electric attitude toward competing schools of learning psychology.

      C.    Finding a Middle Ground

Successful instructional practis have features that are supported by virtually all the various perspectives:

-          Active participation

-          Practice

-          Individual differences

-          Feedback

-          Realistic contexts

-          Social interactions

      D.    A Philosophical Perspective on Learning

Using instructional technology does not preclude a humane teaching/learning environment. On the contracy, instructional media and technologies for learning can help provide a learning atmosphere in which students actively participate. When instructional media and technology are used properly and creatively in the classroom, it is the machines  that are turned on and offat will, not the students.

Media

A medium (plural, media) is a channel of communication. Derived from the Latin word meaning “between,” the term refers to anything that carries information between a source and a receiver. Video, televition diagrams, printed materials, computers, and instructor are considered instructional media when they carry messages with an instructional purpose. The purpose of media is to facilitate communication.

The Concrete-Abstract  Continuum

Instructional media that incorporate concrete experiences help students intergrate prior experience and thus facilitate leaning of abstract concepts.

The Roles of Media in Learning

A.    Instructor-Directed Instruction

The most common use of media is an instructional situation is for supplemental support of the “live” instructor in the classroom.Certainly, properlydesign instructional media can enchance and promote learning and support teacher-based instruction. But, their effectiveness depends on the instructor.

B.    Instructior-Independent Instruction

Media are often “packaged” for this purpose: objectives are listed, guidance in achieving is given, materials are assembled, and self-evaluation guidelines are provided. Cooperative learning with hypermedia can lead to stimulating interchanges among students as they go through and discuss their response to the materials.

C.    Media Portfolios

A portfolio is a collection of student work that illustarets growth over period of time. The idea of portofolio assessment, then, is to measure students’ achievements by their ability to create tangible products exemplifying their accomplisments in terms of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Electronic Portfolios, are mean of organizing, designing, and viewing traditional styles of portfolios.

D.   Thematic Instruction

These units provide a rich environment or focus within which learning takes place. A good anchor or theme must capture and hold students’ attention, provide problem-sloving experiences, support interdisciplinary activities, and include a variety of media and technology.

E.    Distance Education

Distance education is rapidly developing approach to instruction worldwide.The distinguish characteristic of distance education is the separation of the instructional team and student(s) daring the learning process. As a consequence, the course content must be delivered by instructional media.

F.     Education for Exceptional Students

Adapted and specially designed media can contribute enormously to effective instruction of all students and can help them achieve at their highest potential regardless of their innate abilities.

Method

Traditionally, instructional methods have been described as “presentation forms” such as lectures and discussions. Methods are the procedures of instruction selected to help learners achieve the objectives or to internalize the content or message. Media then, as already defined, are carries of information between a source and a receive.

A.    Ten Method Categories

1.  Presentation, it is a one way communication controlled by the source, with no immediate response from or interaction with the learners.

2.  Demonstartion, leraners wiew a real of like like example of the skill or procedure to be learned.

3.     Discussion, involves the exchange of ideas and opinions among students and teachers.

4.     Drill-and-Practice, learners are led through a series of practice exercises designed to increase fluency in a new skill or to refresh an existing one.

5.   Tutorial, a tutor in the form of a person, computers, software, or special printed materials presents the content, poses a question or problem, requests a learner’s response, analysis her response, supplies appropriate feedback, and provides practice until the learner demonstrates a predetermined level of competency.

6.   Cooperative Learning, a growing body of research supports the claim that students leran  from each other when they work on projects as a term (Slavin, 1989-1990)

7.   Gaming, provides a playful environment in which learners follow prescribed rules as they strive to attain a challenging goal.

8.     Simulation, involves learners confronting a scaled-down version of real-life situation.

9.   Discovery, uses an inductive, or inquiry, approach to learning; it prosents problem to be solved through trial and error.

10. Problem Solving, involves placing students in teh active role of being confronted with problem situated in the real world.

Technology

The latter is exemplified in the often-quoted definition given by economist Jhon Kenneth Galbraith: “The systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tasks.” (Galbraith, 1967,p.12).

The term technologies for learning to refer to both the products and the process of technology as they are applied to human learning. The plural, technologies, because there are many different manifestations of technology. The word learning instead of instruction because it is both possible and common for people to learn without instruction, put the spotlight on the learning process than on the teaching process.