TEACHING MEDIA 3

CHAPTER REPORT 3

The Assure Model

Contructed a procedural model to which have given the acronym ASSURE it is intended to assure effective instruction. Gagne’s (1985) research revealed that well-designed lessons begin with the arousal of students’ interest and then move on to present new material, involve students in practice with feedback, assess their understanding, and go on to followup activities. The ASSURE model incorporates these events of instruction. The ASSURE model focuses on planning surrounding the actual classroom use of media and technology.

Analyze Learners

The first step in the ASSURE model, therefore, is analyze of your audience. It is not feasible to analyze every trait of your learners. Several factors, however, are critical for making good methods and media decisions:

-          General characteristics

-          Spesific entry competences

-          Learning styles

The third factor, learning style, refers to the spectrum of psychological traits that effect how we perceive and respond to different stimuli, such as anxiety, aptitude, visual, or auditory preference, motivation, and so on.

A.    General Characteristics

Even a superficial analysis of learner characteristics can provide helpful leads in selecting instructional methods and media. Learners entering a new conceptual area for the first time may need more direct, concrete kinds of experiences, such as fields trips or role playing exercises.

B.     Spesific Entry Competencies

The assumption that learners have the prerequisite knowledge or skill to begin the lesson can seldom be accepted casually in school settings. Furthermore, researcher studying the impact of different psycological traits on learning have reach the unexpected conclusion that students’ prior knowledge of a particular subject influences how and what they can learn more than does any psychological trait.

C.     Learning Style

Learning style refers to a cluster of psychological traits that determine how an individual perceives, interacts with, and responds emotinally to learning environments. Learning tyle variables discussed in the literature can be categorized as perceptual preferences and strength, information processing habits, motivational factors, and psychological factors.

1.     Perceptual Preferences and Strength, the main gateways include auditory, visual, tactile, and  kinesthetic.

2.   Information Processing Habits, this categoty includes a range of variables related to how individuals tend to approach the cognitive processing of information.

3.   Motivational Factors, motivation is an internal state that leads people to choose to work toward or againts certain goals and experiences. It defines what people will do rather than what they can do (Keller, 1987). Motivators can be categorized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivators are generated by aspects of the experince or task itself, such as challenge or curiosity. Extrinsic motivators are generated by factors not directly related to the experience or task, such as grades or recognition.

Keller describes four essential aspects of motivation:

-          Attention

-          Relevance

-          Confidence

-          Satisfaction

4.  Physiological Factors, factors related to gender differences, health, and environmental conditions are among the most abvious influences on the effectiveness of learning. Boys and girls tend to respond differenly to various school experiences.

State Objectives

An objective is a statement not of what the instructor plans to put into the lesson but of what learners ought to get out of the lesson. And objective is a statement of what will be achieved, not how it will be achieved.

A.    The ABCDs of Well-Stated Objectives

A well-stated objectives starts by naming the Audience for whom the objective is intended. It then spesifies the Behavior or capability to be demonstarte and the Conditions under which the bahavior or capability will be observed.

-         Audience

Accomplisment of the objective depens on what learners do, the objectives begins by starting whose capability is going to be changed. If you are repeating the objective in material written for student use, the informal “you” is preferable.

-         Behavior

The behavior or performance started in the obejctive should reflect the real-world capablity learners need, not some artificial ability needed for successful performance on a test.

-         Conditions

A statement of objectives should include the condition under which the performance is to be observed.

-         Degree

The final requirement of well-stated objective is that it indicates the standard, or criterion, by which acceptable performances will be judged.

B.     Classification of Objectives

Classifying objectives is much more than an academic exercise for educational psychologists. An objective may be classified according to the primary type of learning outcome at which it is aimed.

C.     Objectives and Individual Differences

Objectives in any the domains just discussed may, of course, be adapted to the abilities of individual learners. The started philosophy of most schools and colleges is to help students fulfill their full potential.

Select Methods, Media, and Materials

A systematic plan for using media and technology certainly demands that the methods, media, and materials be selected systematically in the first place. The selection process has three steps: (1) decideng on the appropriate method for the given learning tasks, (2) choosing the media format that is suitable for carrying out the method, and (3) selecting, modifying, or designing spesific materials within that media format.

A.    Choosing a Method

Any given lesson will probably incorporate two or more methods to serve different purposes at different points in the progression of the lesson.

B.     Choosing a Media Format

A media format is the physical form in which a message is incorporated and displayed. Choosing a media format can be a complex task considering the vast array of media and technology available, the variety of learners, and the many objectives to be pursued.

C.     Obtaining Spesific Materials

Obtaining appropriate materials will generally involve in one of three alternatives: (1) selecting available materials, (2) modifying existing materials, or (3) designing new materials.

1.      Selecting materials

-          Involving the Media/Technology Specialist

-          Surveying the Sources

-          Selection Criteria

-          The Instructor’s Personal File

2.      Modifying Existing Materials

This can be both challenging and creative. In terms of time and cost, it is more efficient procedure than designing your own materials, although the type and extent of necessary modification will, of course, vary.

3.      Designing New Materials

However, there may be times when your only resource is to design your own materials. As is the case with selecting from available materials, you must consider certain basic elements when designing new materials:

-          Obejctives

-          Audience

-          Cost

-          Techincal Expertise

-          Equipment

-          Facilities

-          Time

Utilize Media and Materials

The recommended utilization procedures are based on extensive research. The increased availability of the media and the philosophical shift from the teacher centered to student centered learning increases the likelihood that the student will be using the materials themselves as individuals or in a small group rather than wastching as the teacher present them to whole class.

A.    Previewing the Materials

During the selection process, should determine that the materials are appropriate for the audience and objectives.

B.     Prepare the Materials

Prepare the media and the materials to support the instructional activities that have plan to use.

C.     Prepare the Environment

Certain factors are often taken for granted for any instructional situation comfortable seating, adequate ventilation, climate control, suitable lighting, and the like.

D.    Prepare the Learners

A proper warmup, from an isntructional point of view, may be similar to one of the following:

-          An introduction giving a broad overview of the content of the lesson

-          A rationale telling how it relates to the topic being studied

-          A motivating statement

-          Cues directing attention to spesific aspects of the lesson

E.     Provide the Learning Experience

If the materials are teacher based, should present like a professional. If the experience is student centered, must play the role of guide of facilitator, helping students to explore the topic on the Internet, discuss the content, prepare materials for posrtfolio, or present information to their classmates.

Require Learner Participation

The behaviorist perspective proposes that individuals learn what they do that is, learning is process of try instruction. Followup activities can provide further approtunities. Teacher guides and manuals written to accompany instructional materials often suggest techniques and activities for eliciting and reinforcing student responses.

Evaluate and Revise

The final competent of the ASSURE model for effective learning is evaluation and revision. Evaluation is not the end of the instruction. It is the starting point of the next and continuing cycle in systematic ASSURE model for effective use of instructional media.

A.    Assement of Learner Achievement

The method of assesing achievement depends of the nature of the objective. Some objectives call for relatively simple cognitive skills.

B.     Evaluation of Methods and Media

Evaluation also includes assessment of instructional methods and media. Particularly after first use, instructional materials need to be evaluated to determine whether future use, with or without modification, is warranted.

C.     Revision

The final step of the instructional cycle is to sit back and look at the results of evaluation data gathering. That should reflect on the lesson and each component of it. Make notes immidiately following completion of the lesson, and refer to them before implement the lesson again.

TEACHING MEDIA 2

CHAPTER REPORT 2

Technologies For Learning

What Are Technologies For Learning?

Technologies for learning as a spesific teaching-learning patterns that serve realiby as templetes for achieving demonstrably affective learning. Successful instruction, regardless of the psycological perspective behaviourist, cognitivist, or social psycologist includes a number of common features:

-          Active participation and interaction

-          Practice

-          Individualized instruction

-          Reinforcement or feedback

-          Realistic context

-          Cooperative groups

All the technologies discussed here emphasize active and continuous practice of relevant knowledge, skills, ands attitudes, and all, as part of the total system, provide for rapid, effective feedback. Many of them are driven by the search for ways to build interpersonal feedback into all instruction.

Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning involves small heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common academic goal or task while working together to learn collaboration and social skills.

A.    Advantages

-          Active learning

-          Social skills

-          Interdependence

-          Individual accountability

B.     Limitations

-          Student compabilitiy

-          Student dependency

-          Time consuming

-          Individualist

-          Logicstical obstacle

C.     Integration

-          Students can learn cooperatively not only by being with materials but also by producing materials themselves

-          In a science lab, middle school students work together as detective to determine the nature of an unknown substance

-          High school students in an art appretiation course work together in cooperative groups to learn about the differents terms of creative art

-          The notion of students working together in a small groups is not new, but ensuring that their efforts are truly collaborative has recently become a point of emphasis

-          That not only does cooperative learning yield better acquisiton and retention of lesson content, but it also promotes better interpersonal and thinking skills.

D.    Learning Together Model

Jhonson and Jhonson’s interpendent learning group, known as the Learning together model, requires four basic elements:

-          Positive interdepence

-          Face to face helping interaction

-          Individual accountability

-          Teaching interpersonal and small group skills.

E.     Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Robert Slavin (1985) and his colleagues have developed a different format format cooperative learning, Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI), which they developed for mathematics instruction in grades three to six.

TAI follows this pattern:

-          Teaching groups

-          Team formation

-          Self-instructional materials

-          Team study

-          Team scores and team recognition

F.      Computer Based Cooperative Learning

Computer assistance can also alleviate some of the logistical obstacles to using cooperative learning methods, particularly the tasks of managing information, accolocating different individual responsibilities, presenting and monitoring instructional material, analyzing learner responses, administering tests, and scoring and providing remediation for those tests.

Games

The terms game simulation, and simulation game are often used interchangeably. A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal.

A.    Advantages

-          Attractive

-          Novel

-          Atmosphere

-          Time on task

B.     Limitations

-          Competition

-          Distraction

-          Poor design

C.     Integration

-          Attaintment of cognitive, objective, particularly those involving recognition, discrimination, or memorition, such as grammar, phonics, spelling, arithmetic skills, formulas (in chemistry, physics, logic), and so on.

-          Adding motivation to topic that ordinarily attact little student interest.

-          Small-group instruction, providing structured activities that students or trainees can conduct.

-          Basic skill can be developed by means of card games.

-          Vocabulary building.

D.    Adapting the Content of Instructional Games

Although most teachers do not design new instructional games from stratch, they often adapt existing games by changing the subject matter while retaining the game’s structure. Here are some sample adaptions:

-          Safety tic-tac-toe

-          Spelling rummy

-          Reading concentration

-          Word bingo

Simulations

A simulations is an abstraction or simplication of some real-life situation or process. In simulations, participants usually play a role that involves them in interactions with other people or with elements of the simulated environment. Simulations can very greatly  in the extent to which they fully reflect the realities of the situation they are intended to model.

A.    Simulation and Problem-Based Learning

One particular value of simulation is that it implements the problem-based learning method as directly, and clearly as possible. Most simulations attempt to immerse participants in a problem.

B.     Simulators

The advice employed to represent a psysical system in a scaled-down form is reffered to as a simulator. One familiar of simulator is the flight trainer, a mock up of the interior of the cockpit complete with controls and gauges.

C.     Advantages

-          Realistic

-          Safe

-          Simplified

D.    Limitations

-          Time consuming

-          Oversimplication

E.     Integration

-          Training in motor skills

-          Instruction in social interaction and human relation

-          Development of decision-making skills

F.      Role Plays

Role play refers to a type of a simulation in which the dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction among people. The role-play simulation has proven to be a motivating and effective method of developing social skills, especially empathy.

Simulation Games

A Simulation game combine the attributes of a simulation with the attribute of a game. Like a simulation, it may be relatively high or low in its modeling of reality. Like a game it may not entrail competition.

A.    Integration

Instructional simulation games are found in curriculum applications that require both the repetitive skill practiced associated with games and the reality context associated with simulations.

B.     Cooperative Simulation Games

Traditionally, games both athletic contest and table top board games have emphasized competition among adversaries. Out of the new awareness has come the “new games” movement, generating hundreds of operative games that challenge the body and imagination but that depend on cooperative for success.

Learning Centers

The learning centers is a self contained environment design to promote individual or small-group learning around a spesific task. A learning center may be as simple as a table and some chairs around which students discuss, or it may be as a sophisticated as several networked computers used by a group for collaborative research and problem solving.

A.    Advantages

-          Self-pacing

-          Active learning

-          Teacher role

B.     Limitations

-          Cost

-          Management

-          Students responsibility

-          Students isolation

C.     Integration

-          Skill centers

-          Interest centers

-          Remedial centers

-          Enrichment centers

Program Instruction

Program instruction was chronologically the first technology for learning ans is and explicit application of principles of learning theory operant conditioning or reinforcement theory. Programmed instruction led to the development of computer assisted instruction (CAI) and the same principles are currently incorporated in Web-based learner participation. Programmed instruction usually refers to learning done by individual using printed materials or computer.

A.    Advantages

-          Self-pacing

-          Practice and feedback

-          Reliable

-          Effective

B.     Limitations

-          Program design

-          Tedious

-          Lack of social interaction

C.     Integration

Programmed materials have been used successfully from the elementary school through the adult education level and in almost every subject area. Programmed instruction is particularly useful as an enrichment activity. Programmed activity also have proven to be effective in remedial instruction. Like any other instructional material, programmed texts need to be carefully appraised before selection.

Programmed Tutoring

Programmed tutoring is a one to one method of instruction in which the tutor’s responses are programmed in advance in the form of carefully structured printed instructions.

A.    Advantages

-          Self-pacing

-          Practice and feedback

-          Reliable

-          Effective

B.     Limitations

-          Labor intensive

-          Development cost

C.     Integration

In using programmed tutoring, keep in mind that research consistenly indicates that tutors also learn from tutoring, sometimes more then their tutees. Consider using tutoring to make productive use of high absence days.

Programmed Teaching

Programmed teaching also known as direct instruction, is an attempt to apply the principles of programmed instruction in a large-group setting. Programmed teaching is seen by its proponents as a total system for organizing classroom instruction. Programmed teaching lessons are designed to generate high rates of responding by all students. And programmed teaching can be regarded as a technology for learning in that it has a definite pattern.

Personalized System of Instruction

Personalized system of instruction can be described as a template for managing instruction.The essential of PSI is that the learning materials are arranged in sequential order and the students must demonstrate mastery of each unit before being allowed to move on the next.

A.    Advantages

-          Self-pacing

-          Mastery

-          Effective

B.     Limitations

-          Development cost

-          Behaviorist commitment

-          Self-dicipline

C.     Integration

At the level technology for learning has been succsessful in mathematics, engineering, and psychology and slightly less succsessful in the life sciences and sosial sciences. More recently it has become popular framework for structuring some computer based courses and for distance education that relies on the World Wide Web for distribution.